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ts with PPGLs, and further research on molecular classification is needed for precise management.Since the introduction of minimally invasive surgery, laparoscopic adrenalectomy has become the main treatment option for adrenal masses. Various studies have reported that laparoscopic adrenalectomy showed fewer postoperative complications and faster recovery than conventional open adrenalectomy. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy can be performed through either the transperitoneal approach or the retroperitoneoscopic approach, which are widely used in most adrenal surgical procedures. Furthermore, with the development of minimally invasive surgery, organ-sparing adrenalectomy has recently emerged as a way to conserve functional adrenal gland tissue. According to recent data, organ-sparing adrenalectomy shows promising surgical, functional, and oncological outcomes including less intraoperative blood loss, maintenance of adrenal function, and low recurrence. Partial adrenalectomy was initially proposed for bilateral adrenal tumors in patients with hereditary disease to avoid chronic adrenal insufficiency. However, it has also gained popularity for the treatment of unilateral adrenal disease involving a small adrenal tumor because even patients with a unilateral adrenal gland may develop adrenal insufficiency in stressful situations. Therefore, partial adrenalectomy has become increasingly common to avoid lifelong steroid replacement and recurrence in most cases, especially in bilateral adrenal disease. This review article evaluates the current evidence on minimally invasive adrenalectomy and organ-preserving partial adrenalectomy.The adrenal gland plays a pivotal role in an organism’s health span by controlling the endocrine system. Decades of research on the adrenal gland have provided multiscale insights into the development and maintenance of this essential organ. A particularly interesting finding is that founder stem/progenitor cells participate in adrenocortical development and enable the adult adrenal cortex to regenerate itself in response to hormonal stress and injury. Since major advances have been made in understanding the dynamics of the developmental process and the remarkable regenerative capacity of the adrenal gland, understanding the mechanisms underlying adrenal development, maintenance, and regeneration will be of interest to basic and clinical researchers. Here, we introduce the developmental processes of the adrenal gland and discuss current knowledge regarding stem/progenitor cells that regulate adrenal cortex remodeling and regeneration. AZD9668 in vitro This review will provide insights into the fascinating ongoing research on the development and regeneration of the adrenal cortex.The agenesis of the gonads and adrenal gland in revealed by knockout mouse studies strongly suggested a crucial role for Nr5a1 (SF-1 or Ad4BP) in organ development. In relation to these striking phenotypes, NR5A1/Nr5a1 has the potential to reprogram cells to steroidogenic cells, endow pluripotency, and regulate cell proliferation. However, due to limited knowledge regarding NR5A1 target genes, the mechanism by which NR5A1/Nr5a1 regulates these fundamental processes has remained unknown. Recently, newlyestablished technologies have enabled the identification of NR5A1 target genes related to multiple metabolic processes, as well as the aforementioned biological processes. Considering that active cellular processes are expected to be accompanied by active metabolism, NR5A1 may act as a key factor for processes such as cell differentiation, proliferation, and survival by coordinating these processes with cellular metabolism. A complete and definite picture of the cellular processes coordinated by NR5A1/Nr5a1 could be depicted by accumulating evidence of the potential target genes through whole genome studies.Like other substrates, plasma glucose is in a dynamic state of constant turnover (i.e., rates of glucose appearance [Ra glucose] into and disappearance [Rd glucose] from the plasma) while staying within a narrow range of normal concentrations, a physiological priority. Persistent imbalance of glucose turnover leads to elevations (i.e., hyperglycemia, Ra>Rd) or falls (i.e., hypoglycemia, Ra less then Rd) in the pool size, leading to clinical conditions such as diabetes. Endogenous Ra glucose is divided into hepatic glucose production via glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis (GNG) and renal GNG. On the other hand, Rd glucose, the summed rate of glucose uptake by tissues/organs, involves various intracellular metabolic pathways including glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, and oxidation at varying rates depending on the metabolic status. Despite the dynamic nature of glucose metabolism, metabolic studies typically rely on measurements of static, snapshot information such as the abundance of mRNAs and proteins and (in)activation of implicated signaling networks without determining actual flux rates. In this review, we will discuss the importance of obtaining kinetic information, basic principles of stable isotope tracer methodology, calculations of in vivo glucose kinetics, and assessments of metabolic flux in experimental models in vivo and in vitro.The world is facing the new challenges of an aging population, and understanding the process of aging has therefore become one of the most important global concerns. Sarcopenia is a condition which is defined by the gradual loss of skeletal muscle mass and function with age. In research and clinical practice, sarcopenia is recognized as a component of geriatric disease and is a current target for drug development. In this review we define this condition and provide an overview of current therapeutic approaches. We further highlight recent findings that describe key pathophysiological phenotypes of this condition, including alterations in muscle fiber types, mitochondrial function, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) metabolism, myokines, and gut microbiota, in aged muscle compared to young muscle or healthy aged muscle. The last part of this review examines new therapeutic avenues for promising treatment targets. There is still no accepted therapy for sarcopenia in humans. Here we provide a brief review of the current state of research derived from various mouse models or human samples that provide novel routes for the development of effective therapeutics to maintain muscle health during aging.